We'll Bring our Location to You Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

We'll Bring our Location to You - Case Study Example Some societies will be friendly while others will be harsh. Turner, a food truck owner, said that operating a mobile restaurant was a remarkable experience. People would stream out, both parents and children, to enjoy delicious meals that they offered. The particular town was very nice for trucks (Rock, 2012). A mobile restaurant is more flexible than a stationary restaurant. In seasons when business is low in a particular area, one only shifts to new locations where business is good. The prices of foods in a mobile restaurant are comparatively lower to that of a stationary restaurant. The cost of starting a mobile restaurant are much more affordable ranging between $20,000 to $160,000 depending on the food truck one would purchase. Fixed restaurants have high operational costs especially in big cities. Thus making net profit is difficult in the case of fixed restaurants (Scarborough 2012). Market penetration is one of the biggest advantages of mobile restaurants. Food trucks can quickly dispatch deliveries to community festivals, weddings and private events. Mobile restaurants overcome the difficulties companies might face in holding business off-sites even though demand exists. In such cases, mobile restaurants deliver quality food and services at places of convenience to the client (Jennings, 2009). The precise location of a mobile restaurant cannot be easily determined. The food truck is at one place at particular moment and the next moment it is far away (Mark Elliot & Sanders, 2013). Thus, mobile restaurants are highly mobile ever exploring and searching for new market and opportunities. Food trucks have the ability to move to locations where there are many customers and park there thus achieving high sales. Mobile restaurants are like arteries they penetrate everywhere and generate approximately $1.4 billion per annum (Marte, 2012).Hence, food trucks in a sense hijack customers by parking in

Arguments against the existence of God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Arguments against the existence of God - Essay Example Philosophers and thinkers who voted against the existence of God include David Hume, Bertrand Russell, and Nietzche. In much recent times, the debate on the existence of God has been discussed by scientists such as Stephen Hawking, William Lane Craig, and David Bentley Feser among others. Whether God exists or not presents a very interesting debate within the popular cultures, in the philosophy of religion and in philosophy itself. So, who is God? The Bible does not give God an exact definition nor any allusion to anything. But it does give Him characteristics like all powerful, all merciful, transcendent, the beginning, and the end, is not physically visible to us, and He exists forever. According to the Bible, God is the creator of heaven and earth and through His word; He created the universe and everything else on it. God has a son, Jesus Christ, who was begotten of the Virgin Mary and sent to save humanity from evil. God is capable of blessing and punishing and is called the Most High Father. In classical theism, God is defined by the same metaphysical attributes by being timeless, sovereign, the first and also simple. The approach is no different in Eastern religious thoughts, Christian, Hebrew traditions or even Islam. The empirical arguments extended against the existence of God largely rely on the knowledge that is acquired from observations that in turn proves their conclusions. One such argument emanates from the inconsistency in revelations on the existence of a deity called God from the scriptures. These scriptures include the Christian Bible, Muslim Quran, Hindu Vedas, Jewish Tanakh and the Book of Mormon. There exists an apparent contradiction between different scriptures, within a single scripture in different books, for example, the Gospels, or between the scriptures and some well-known facts. The problem of evil also fuels the argument that indeed, God does not exist. According

Marriage and Holy Orders

Marriage and Holy Orders Here is the question Since Vatican 2 the sacraments of Marriage and Holy Orders have been understood as sacraments of Christian ministry. How is this understanding of these two sacraments reflected in the churchs contemporary theology of Marriage and Holy Orders? Several individuals have been concerned with the understanding of the sacraments of holy matrimony and the holy orders in the churchs contemporary theology. for instance 1st a The Catholic custom educates that sacraments are an outward signs, incidents that are clear in our understanding, of the unseen truth of Gods grace in our lives, which is practiced only indirectly by its consequence on our lives. And the customary lessons goes further. Not only do sacraments spot the approaching of grace with a noticeable symbol, but they bring about the realism of refinement by the means they connect us to the person of Jesus Christ present in the society which is his house of worship. In the case of the sacraments of occupation this is clear in the way these sacraments begin individuals into a duty, a service, in the church society. since the outcome of the sacraments is connected to the outer symbol, which should be as comprehensible and fluent as possible. To a great level the society itself is constitutive of the symbol, and is thus vital in calling forward the gifts of the occupation in which each individual is well-known and established in each sacrament of oc cupation. 1st b The Bible pioneers us to a widespread custom of sacramental movement.For example the Hebrew Scriptures do not utilize any phrase that we would interpret as sacrament, but portray acts of worship base on representation. The most significant of these is the Passover festivity, but there are many others. However, in the New Testament Jesus built on these obtainable customs of worship, as well as on the narratives and descriptions of the Scriptures in his events and in his teachings. Consequently, the sacraments we rejoice in nowadays are all developed from these events and teachings of Jesus. And that is why we refer to Matrimony Holy Orders as the sacraments of occupation, a statement that originates from the Latin for call. Meaning that, all of us are called by God. As a matter of fact, we are called at different levels, and increasingly all through our lives, we are called into existence, into human self-respect and accountability, and into certain associations, societies and tasks. Most significantly ,we are called into an cherished spiritual union with God that does not come as expected but must be required and refined within the grace, or a particular outreach, of God. The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. 2nd part The Christian perception is that, despite the fact all of the complex human tradition of disputes and competitions, maltreatment and unfairness, chauvinism and eliminations, matrimony in the grace of Christ are redemptive. They are authorized to exceed all the troubles and to make families and relationships all over the community that bring health and completeness and pleasure both within their individual family circle and in the wider society. This too is an necessary part of building the church, the society of the believers of Jesus. This also is a sacrament of occupation, of the passion to build up the church that contributes in the work of salvation. The sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus; the matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. When we perceive the complementarily of these sacraments of occupation, we are observing the house of worship in a manner that may be new and thus seems odd. Some may even imagine that this is a more Protestant method of observing our Christian being collectively and at the nature and purpose of the house of worship. So far this organic means of viewing the house of worship and our positions inside it is built right into our sacramental performance and our theology of the sacraments. In addition, essentially and theologically there is no shared exceptionality between the sacraments of Matrimony Holy Orders. Though the present regulation of the Catholic church needs celibacy of its priests, that has not all time and all over been so. An individual can be named to assist in the building up of the body of the risen Christ, which is the society of followers, in two ways. He can be the one to bring the society collectively in Eucharist as well as being one of individuals who build up the society family by family in weaving the redemptive relations. The two sacraments of occupation, similar to the entire sacraments, are not just celebrations that occur in a given moment and then are history. They are ongoing and continuously unfolding the truth in our existence as we remain heading towards full salvation and change that move us towards redemption, which is our correct connection with God and thus with one another. The main fundamental calling of a believer is the call into discipleship of Jesus in a society of disciples. Thus the main fundamental sacrament of calling is in fact baptism, or more precisely initiation which is celebrated in first Eucharist, Confirmation, and Baptism. It initiates an individual into the membership and life of the house of worship. Therefore, the solemn festivity simultaneously of the heavenly invitation, of the reply of the person, and of the welcome of the society which is both the local meeting of followers of Jesus, and the great general People of God, the international church. Nothing is actually superior or closer in the association we have with our maker than the grace and vocation of baptism. However, that vocation expressed by baptism, that calling of the baptized, plays out in different ways for different individuals. Amongst our 7 sacramental celebrations, we recognize this by a series of festivities shared by all, and by 2 festivities focused on the 2 crucial ways in which the church as society of salvation in the world is built up. And these 2 are usually identified as the sacraments of vocation. Ordained members and Holy Orders See also: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church),and Deacon Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[137][138] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).[139] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the S ick.[140] A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[141][142] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[143] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[144][145] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.[146] All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[147] They are designed by national bishops conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[148] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[149] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[139] Because the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[150] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[151] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.[152] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.[153] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VIs statement If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities.[153] [edit] Lay members, Marriage See also: Laity The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a bodyall being important to enable the body to function.[154] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christs priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[139] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be gra nted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[157] Natural family planning is approved.[158] Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[159] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[161] [edit] matrimony and orders After definition (done) The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. The 2 sacraments 4th part Finally, this brings us to the sacraments at the service of communion; the sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus, The matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. [92] By the eleventh century ordination had come to be generally considered a sacrament. [93] With the advent of Vatican II and the publication of the document The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum concilium) the Church states the prayers addressed to God by the priest who, in the person of Christ, presides over the assembly, are said in the name of the entire holy people and of all present. [94] That is, the priest acts for and in the name of the entire Eucharistic community. In further Vatican II documents the role of the priest is stated as thus: by reason of their sacerdotal dignity; and in virtue of the sacrament of Orders, after the image of Christ, the supreme and eternal priest they are consecrated in order to preach the Gospel and shepherd the faithful as well as to celebrate divine worship as true priests of the New Testament However, it is in the eucharistic cult or in the eucharistic assembly of the faithful that they exercise their sacred functions and in the sacrifice of the Mass they make present again the unique sacrifice of the New Testament, that namely of Christ offering a spotless victim to the Father. [95] Once again the centrality of the Eucharist is evident. It is through the Eucharistic ministry of the priest that the presence of Christ can be actualised for the community of believers. [96] With the reception of this sacrament certain men are seen to receive a sacred power in order to serve the faithful through teaching, divine worship and pastoral governance. [97] The Church therefore sees the ordained priesthood as a means by which Christ unceasingly builds up and leads [Christs] Church. Marriage The Council brought about two major changes in our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. First, the Council speaks of marriage as a covenant. The marriage covenant helps us think in biblical and interpersonal categories that reach beyond the legal categories of the marriage contract. The marriage covenant is a symbol of Gods covenant with humanity. Second, the Council taught that the purpose of marriage is not only to produce children but also to enable the couple to support one another in mutual love. Marriage is an intimate partnership of life and love (Church in the Modern World, #48). We look to the married couple as a sacrament, a sign to the world of Gods love. Both of these changes enrich our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. But they also open the door to new questions: Who is capable of a sacramental marriage? What are the qualities and conditions necessary for a marriage to be a sign of Gods love for the Church? In a time when Catholic marriages are vulnerable to the stresses of modern life, the Churchs support of married couples is vital. Holy Orders When we think of Holy Orders we usually think of the sacrament by which one becomes a priest. But Holy Orders ends in s because it names three sacramental orders: the Order of the Episcopate (bishops), the Order of Presbyters (priests), and the Order of Deacons. The Council had important things to say about each of these. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops). The Council affirmed that a bishop is ordained to the fullness of the Sacrament of Orders. By his ordination a bishop becomes a member of the College of Bishops and assumes responsibility not only for his own local Church but also for the universal Church. The Order of Presbyters (Priests). We have all witnessed the drastic decline in the number of priests. Empty rectories, merged parishes, closed seminaries, Sunday Celebrations in the Absence of a Priestthe bishops of Vatican II envisioned none of these things. The Council made two major changes that radically affected the lives of priests. First, while the ordained have specific ministries within the Church, the Council affirmed that the basis of all ministry is Baptism into the Body of Christ. Second, the Council placed the priest in the midst of the baptized and said that priests should work together with the lay faithful (Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, Presbyterorum Ordinis, #9). To go from being set apart from the faithful to living in the midst of the faithful was a big change. The Council affirmed that priests are in a certain sense set apart but they are not to be separated from the People of God because priests cannot serve the faithful if they are strangers to their lives and conditions (PO, #3). Has this change in identity contributed to the decline in the number of priests? The Order of Deacons. Deacons had ministered in the Western Church until about the fifth century. By the time of the Second Vatican Council, the Order of Deacons was simply a transitional stage for those passing through on their way to the priesthood. The Council restored the Order of Deacons, making it a permanent ministry in the Church. The bishops of the Council decided to permit married men to be ordained deacons. In 1967 there were no permanent deacons; today there are over 30,000 deacons worldwide. PREPARATION FOR THE SACRAMENT OF MARRIAGE INTRODUCTION 1. Preparation for marriage, for married and family life, is of great importance for the good of the Church. In fact, the sacrament of Marriage has great value for the whole Christian community and, in the first place, for the spouses whose decision is such that it cannot be improvised or made hastily. In the past, this preparation could count on the support of society which recognized the values and benefits of marriage. Without any difficulties or doubts, the Church protected the sanctity of marriage with the awareness that this sacrament represented an ecclesial guarantee as the living cell of the People of God. At least in the communities that were truly evangelized, the Churchs support was solid, unitary and compact. In general, separations and marriage failures were rare, and divorce was considered a social plague (cf. Gaudium et Spes = GS, 47). Today, on the contrary, in many cases, we are witnessing an accentuated deterioration of the family and a certain corrosion of the values of marriage. In many nations, especially economically developed ones, the number of marriages has decreased. Marriage is usually contracted at a later age and the number of divorces and separations is increasing, even during the first years of married life. All this inevitably leads to a pastoral concern that comes up repeatedly: Are the persons contracting marriage really prepared for it? The problem of preparation for the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows emerges as a great pastoral need, first for the sake of the spouses, for the whole Christian community and for society. Therefore, interest in, and initiatives for providing adequate and timely answers to preparation for the sacrament of Marriage are growing everywhere. 2. Through on-going contact with the Episcopal Conferences and the Bishops in various meetings, and especially their ad limina visits, the Pontifical Council for the Family has carefully followed the pastoral concern regarding the preparation and celebration of the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows. The Council has been repeatedly asked to offer an instrument for the preparation of Christian engaged persons which the present document represents. The Council has also drawn on the contributions from many Apostolic Movements, Groups and Associations working for the pastoral care of the family who have offered their support, advice and experience for the preparation of these guidelines. Marriage preparation constitutes a providential and favourable period for those oriented toward this Christian sacrament, and a Kayrà ³s, i.e., a period in which God calls upon the engaged and helps them discern the vocation to marriage and family life. The engagement period is set within the context of a rich evangelization process. In fact, questions that affect the family converge in the life of the engaged, the future spouses. They are therefore invited to understand the meaning of the responsible and mature love of the community of life and love which their family will be, a real domestic church which will contribute toward enriching the whole Church. The importance of this preparation involves a process of evangelization which is both maturation and deepening in the faith. If the faith is weak or almost nonexistent (cf. Familiaris Consortio = FC 68), it must be revived. Thorough, patient instruction that arouses and nourishes the ardor of a living faith cannot be excluded. Especially where the environment has become paganized, it will be particularly advisable to offer a journey of faith, which is similar to the catechumenate (FC 66), and a presentation of the fundamental Christian truths that may help acquire or strengthen the maturity of the faith of the persons contracting marriage. It would be desirable if the favourable moment of marriage preparation could be transformed, as a sign of hope, into a New Evangelization for the future families. 3. This particular attention is highlighted by the teachings of the Second Vatican Council (GS 52), the guidelines of the Papal Magisterium (FC 66), the ecclesial norms themselves (Codex Iuris Canonici = CIC, can. 1063; Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium = CCEO, can. 783), the Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 1632), and other documents of the Magisterium, including the Charter of the Rights of the Family. The two most recent documents of the Papal Magisterium the Letter to Families Gratissimam Sane and the Encyclical Evangelium Vitae (= EV) constitute a notable aid for our task. The Sacraments of Vocation and Commitment: Matrimony and Holy Order (Vatican II) As happened with so many other theological and pastoral questions, the Catholic Churchs perspective on marriage was significantly modified by the Second Vatican Council. In contrast with previous official pronouncements and conventional theological and canonical insights, the council adopts a remarkably personalistic standpoint. It no longer uses the traditional term contract to describe the marriage bond. Instead, the council speaks of the marriage covenant which is sealed by an irrevocable personal consent (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, n. 48). Second, neither does the council continue to employ the old distinction between primary and secondary ends in which the begetting of children is always more important than the mutual love of (two people). Hence, while not making the other ends of marriage of less value, the true practice of conjugal love, and the whole nature of family life resulting from it, tend to dispose the spouses to cooperate courageously with the love of the creator and Savior who through them day by day expands and enriches His own family (n. 50, italics McBriens). Third, the sacrament of marriage is not something added to the marriage union established through mutual human love. Authentic married love is taken up into divine love and is ruled and enriched by the redemptive power of Christ and the salvific action of the Church (n. 48). This new emphasis in the theology of marriage is consistent with the claims of contemporary sociology that this is the first age in which people marry and remain in marriage because they love each other. And so there is this stress on the mutual exchange of love constituting the sacrament of marriage, on married love as the source of the institution of marriage, on the need for growth in this love to bring the sacrament to its full realization, and on the need for the Church constantly to bring forth the witness value of this sacrament to the whole community of faith. As (two people) are called to be faithful, generous, and gracious to each other in fulfillment of their marriage covenant, so is the whole Church called to be faithful to its covenant with God in Christ. Fourth, the council emphasizes the necessity of a faith commitment for the sacrament of marriage (see Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 59). Marriage is not just a ceremony by which two people are legally bound together. As a sacrament, it is an act of worship, and expression of faith, a sign of the Churchs unity, a mode of Christs presence. . Fifth, the full consummation of marriage is more than a biological act. The old theology and the old canon law asserted that a marriage between two baptized Christians, once performed according to the rite of the Church (ratum) and once consummated by a single act of physical union (consummatum), can never be dissolved, not even by the pope. But according to the council, the expression of the mutual love which is at the heart of the sacrament consists of more than biological union. It involves the good of the whole person. Therefore it can enrich the expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions as special ingredients and signs of friendship distinctive of marriage. Such love pervades the whole of (the spouses) lives (n. 49) Finally, the broader ecclesial dimension of the sacrament is maintained. Christian spouses, in virtue of the sacrament of matrimony, signify and share in the mystery of that union and fruitful love which exists between Christ and the Church (see Ephesians 5:32) (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 11). (pp. 856-858) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate. (Gospel of Matthew 19:6) Matrimony, The Seven Sacraments, Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1445. Stages for catholic marriage Catholic marriage, also called matrimony, is an indissoluble bond between a man a Marriage and Holy Orders Marriage and Holy Orders Here is the question Since Vatican 2 the sacraments of Marriage and Holy Orders have been understood as sacraments of Christian ministry. How is this understanding of these two sacraments reflected in the churchs contemporary theology of Marriage and Holy Orders? Several individuals have been concerned with the understanding of the sacraments of holy matrimony and the holy orders in the churchs contemporary theology. for instance 1st a The Catholic custom educates that sacraments are an outward signs, incidents that are clear in our understanding, of the unseen truth of Gods grace in our lives, which is practiced only indirectly by its consequence on our lives. And the customary lessons goes further. Not only do sacraments spot the approaching of grace with a noticeable symbol, but they bring about the realism of refinement by the means they connect us to the person of Jesus Christ present in the society which is his house of worship. In the case of the sacraments of occupation this is clear in the way these sacraments begin individuals into a duty, a service, in the church society. since the outcome of the sacraments is connected to the outer symbol, which should be as comprehensible and fluent as possible. To a great level the society itself is constitutive of the symbol, and is thus vital in calling forward the gifts of the occupation in which each individual is well-known and established in each sacrament of oc cupation. 1st b The Bible pioneers us to a widespread custom of sacramental movement.For example the Hebrew Scriptures do not utilize any phrase that we would interpret as sacrament, but portray acts of worship base on representation. The most significant of these is the Passover festivity, but there are many others. However, in the New Testament Jesus built on these obtainable customs of worship, as well as on the narratives and descriptions of the Scriptures in his events and in his teachings. Consequently, the sacraments we rejoice in nowadays are all developed from these events and teachings of Jesus. And that is why we refer to Matrimony Holy Orders as the sacraments of occupation, a statement that originates from the Latin for call. Meaning that, all of us are called by God. As a matter of fact, we are called at different levels, and increasingly all through our lives, we are called into existence, into human self-respect and accountability, and into certain associations, societies and tasks. Most significantly ,we are called into an cherished spiritual union with God that does not come as expected but must be required and refined within the grace, or a particular outreach, of God. The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. 2nd part The Christian perception is that, despite the fact all of the complex human tradition of disputes and competitions, maltreatment and unfairness, chauvinism and eliminations, matrimony in the grace of Christ are redemptive. They are authorized to exceed all the troubles and to make families and relationships all over the community that bring health and completeness and pleasure both within their individual family circle and in the wider society. This too is an necessary part of building the church, the society of the believers of Jesus. This also is a sacrament of occupation, of the passion to build up the church that contributes in the work of salvation. The sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus; the matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. When we perceive the complementarily of these sacraments of occupation, we are observing the house of worship in a manner that may be new and thus seems odd. Some may even imagine that this is a more Protestant method of observing our Christian being collectively and at the nature and purpose of the house of worship. So far this organic means of viewing the house of worship and our positions inside it is built right into our sacramental performance and our theology of the sacraments. In addition, essentially and theologically there is no shared exceptionality between the sacraments of Matrimony Holy Orders. Though the present regulation of the Catholic church needs celibacy of its priests, that has not all time and all over been so. An individual can be named to assist in the building up of the body of the risen Christ, which is the society of followers, in two ways. He can be the one to bring the society collectively in Eucharist as well as being one of individuals who build up the society family by family in weaving the redemptive relations. The two sacraments of occupation, similar to the entire sacraments, are not just celebrations that occur in a given moment and then are history. They are ongoing and continuously unfolding the truth in our existence as we remain heading towards full salvation and change that move us towards redemption, which is our correct connection with God and thus with one another. The main fundamental calling of a believer is the call into discipleship of Jesus in a society of disciples. Thus the main fundamental sacrament of calling is in fact baptism, or more precisely initiation which is celebrated in first Eucharist, Confirmation, and Baptism. It initiates an individual into the membership and life of the house of worship. Therefore, the solemn festivity simultaneously of the heavenly invitation, of the reply of the person, and of the welcome of the society which is both the local meeting of followers of Jesus, and the great general People of God, the international church. Nothing is actually superior or closer in the association we have with our maker than the grace and vocation of baptism. However, that vocation expressed by baptism, that calling of the baptized, plays out in different ways for different individuals. Amongst our 7 sacramental celebrations, we recognize this by a series of festivities shared by all, and by 2 festivities focused on the 2 crucial ways in which the church as society of salvation in the world is built up. And these 2 are usually identified as the sacraments of vocation. Ordained members and Holy Orders See also: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church),and Deacon Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[137][138] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).[139] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the S ick.[140] A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[141][142] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[143] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[144][145] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.[146] All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[147] They are designed by national bishops conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[148] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[149] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[139] Because the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[150] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[151] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.[152] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.[153] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VIs statement If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities.[153] [edit] Lay members, Marriage See also: Laity The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a bodyall being important to enable the body to function.[154] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christs priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[139] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be gra nted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[157] Natural family planning is approved.[158] Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[159] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[161] [edit] matrimony and orders After definition (done) The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. The 2 sacraments 4th part Finally, this brings us to the sacraments at the service of communion; the sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus, The matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. [92] By the eleventh century ordination had come to be generally considered a sacrament. [93] With the advent of Vatican II and the publication of the document The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum concilium) the Church states the prayers addressed to God by the priest who, in the person of Christ, presides over the assembly, are said in the name of the entire holy people and of all present. [94] That is, the priest acts for and in the name of the entire Eucharistic community. In further Vatican II documents the role of the priest is stated as thus: by reason of their sacerdotal dignity; and in virtue of the sacrament of Orders, after the image of Christ, the supreme and eternal priest they are consecrated in order to preach the Gospel and shepherd the faithful as well as to celebrate divine worship as true priests of the New Testament However, it is in the eucharistic cult or in the eucharistic assembly of the faithful that they exercise their sacred functions and in the sacrifice of the Mass they make present again the unique sacrifice of the New Testament, that namely of Christ offering a spotless victim to the Father. [95] Once again the centrality of the Eucharist is evident. It is through the Eucharistic ministry of the priest that the presence of Christ can be actualised for the community of believers. [96] With the reception of this sacrament certain men are seen to receive a sacred power in order to serve the faithful through teaching, divine worship and pastoral governance. [97] The Church therefore sees the ordained priesthood as a means by which Christ unceasingly builds up and leads [Christs] Church. Marriage The Council brought about two major changes in our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. First, the Council speaks of marriage as a covenant. The marriage covenant helps us think in biblical and interpersonal categories that reach beyond the legal categories of the marriage contract. The marriage covenant is a symbol of Gods covenant with humanity. Second, the Council taught that the purpose of marriage is not only to produce children but also to enable the couple to support one another in mutual love. Marriage is an intimate partnership of life and love (Church in the Modern World, #48). We look to the married couple as a sacrament, a sign to the world of Gods love. Both of these changes enrich our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. But they also open the door to new questions: Who is capable of a sacramental marriage? What are the qualities and conditions necessary for a marriage to be a sign of Gods love for the Church? In a time when Catholic marriages are vulnerable to the stresses of modern life, the Churchs support of married couples is vital. Holy Orders When we think of Holy Orders we usually think of the sacrament by which one becomes a priest. But Holy Orders ends in s because it names three sacramental orders: the Order of the Episcopate (bishops), the Order of Presbyters (priests), and the Order of Deacons. The Council had important things to say about each of these. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops). The Council affirmed that a bishop is ordained to the fullness of the Sacrament of Orders. By his ordination a bishop becomes a member of the College of Bishops and assumes responsibility not only for his own local Church but also for the universal Church. The Order of Presbyters (Priests). We have all witnessed the drastic decline in the number of priests. Empty rectories, merged parishes, closed seminaries, Sunday Celebrations in the Absence of a Priestthe bishops of Vatican II envisioned none of these things. The Council made two major changes that radically affected the lives of priests. First, while the ordained have specific ministries within the Church, the Council affirmed that the basis of all ministry is Baptism into the Body of Christ. Second, the Council placed the priest in the midst of the baptized and said that priests should work together with the lay faithful (Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, Presbyterorum Ordinis, #9). To go from being set apart from the faithful to living in the midst of the faithful was a big change. The Council affirmed that priests are in a certain sense set apart but they are not to be separated from the People of God because priests cannot serve the faithful if they are strangers to their lives and conditions (PO, #3). Has this change in identity contributed to the decline in the number of priests? The Order of Deacons. Deacons had ministered in the Western Church until about the fifth century. By the time of the Second Vatican Council, the Order of Deacons was simply a transitional stage for those passing through on their way to the priesthood. The Council restored the Order of Deacons, making it a permanent ministry in the Church. The bishops of the Council decided to permit married men to be ordained deacons. In 1967 there were no permanent deacons; today there are over 30,000 deacons worldwide. PREPARATION FOR THE SACRAMENT OF MARRIAGE INTRODUCTION 1. Preparation for marriage, for married and family life, is of great importance for the good of the Church. In fact, the sacrament of Marriage has great value for the whole Christian community and, in the first place, for the spouses whose decision is such that it cannot be improvised or made hastily. In the past, this preparation could count on the support of society which recognized the values and benefits of marriage. Without any difficulties or doubts, the Church protected the sanctity of marriage with the awareness that this sacrament represented an ecclesial guarantee as the living cell of the People of God. At least in the communities that were truly evangelized, the Churchs support was solid, unitary and compact. In general, separations and marriage failures were rare, and divorce was considered a social plague (cf. Gaudium et Spes = GS, 47). Today, on the contrary, in many cases, we are witnessing an accentuated deterioration of the family and a certain corrosion of the values of marriage. In many nations, especially economically developed ones, the number of marriages has decreased. Marriage is usually contracted at a later age and the number of divorces and separations is increasing, even during the first years of married life. All this inevitably leads to a pastoral concern that comes up repeatedly: Are the persons contracting marriage really prepared for it? The problem of preparation for the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows emerges as a great pastoral need, first for the sake of the spouses, for the whole Christian community and for society. Therefore, interest in, and initiatives for providing adequate and timely answers to preparation for the sacrament of Marriage are growing everywhere. 2. Through on-going contact with the Episcopal Conferences and the Bishops in various meetings, and especially their ad limina visits, the Pontifical Council for the Family has carefully followed the pastoral concern regarding the preparation and celebration of the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows. The Council has been repeatedly asked to offer an instrument for the preparation of Christian engaged persons which the present document represents. The Council has also drawn on the contributions from many Apostolic Movements, Groups and Associations working for the pastoral care of the family who have offered their support, advice and experience for the preparation of these guidelines. Marriage preparation constitutes a providential and favourable period for those oriented toward this Christian sacrament, and a Kayrà ³s, i.e., a period in which God calls upon the engaged and helps them discern the vocation to marriage and family life. The engagement period is set within the context of a rich evangelization process. In fact, questions that affect the family converge in the life of the engaged, the future spouses. They are therefore invited to understand the meaning of the responsible and mature love of the community of life and love which their family will be, a real domestic church which will contribute toward enriching the whole Church. The importance of this preparation involves a process of evangelization which is both maturation and deepening in the faith. If the faith is weak or almost nonexistent (cf. Familiaris Consortio = FC 68), it must be revived. Thorough, patient instruction that arouses and nourishes the ardor of a living faith cannot be excluded. Especially where the environment has become paganized, it will be particularly advisable to offer a journey of faith, which is similar to the catechumenate (FC 66), and a presentation of the fundamental Christian truths that may help acquire or strengthen the maturity of the faith of the persons contracting marriage. It would be desirable if the favourable moment of marriage preparation could be transformed, as a sign of hope, into a New Evangelization for the future families. 3. This particular attention is highlighted by the teachings of the Second Vatican Council (GS 52), the guidelines of the Papal Magisterium (FC 66), the ecclesial norms themselves (Codex Iuris Canonici = CIC, can. 1063; Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium = CCEO, can. 783), the Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 1632), and other documents of the Magisterium, including the Charter of the Rights of the Family. The two most recent documents of the Papal Magisterium the Letter to Families Gratissimam Sane and the Encyclical Evangelium Vitae (= EV) constitute a notable aid for our task. The Sacraments of Vocation and Commitment: Matrimony and Holy Order (Vatican II) As happened with so many other theological and pastoral questions, the Catholic Churchs perspective on marriage was significantly modified by the Second Vatican Council. In contrast with previous official pronouncements and conventional theological and canonical insights, the council adopts a remarkably personalistic standpoint. It no longer uses the traditional term contract to describe the marriage bond. Instead, the council speaks of the marriage covenant which is sealed by an irrevocable personal consent (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, n. 48). Second, neither does the council continue to employ the old distinction between primary and secondary ends in which the begetting of children is always more important than the mutual love of (two people). Hence, while not making the other ends of marriage of less value, the true practice of conjugal love, and the whole nature of family life resulting from it, tend to dispose the spouses to cooperate courageously with the love of the creator and Savior who through them day by day expands and enriches His own family (n. 50, italics McBriens). Third, the sacrament of marriage is not something added to the marriage union established through mutual human love. Authentic married love is taken up into divine love and is ruled and enriched by the redemptive power of Christ and the salvific action of the Church (n. 48). This new emphasis in the theology of marriage is consistent with the claims of contemporary sociology that this is the first age in which people marry and remain in marriage because they love each other. And so there is this stress on the mutual exchange of love constituting the sacrament of marriage, on married love as the source of the institution of marriage, on the need for growth in this love to bring the sacrament to its full realization, and on the need for the Church constantly to bring forth the witness value of this sacrament to the whole community of faith. As (two people) are called to be faithful, generous, and gracious to each other in fulfillment of their marriage covenant, so is the whole Church called to be faithful to its covenant with God in Christ. Fourth, the council emphasizes the necessity of a faith commitment for the sacrament of marriage (see Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 59). Marriage is not just a ceremony by which two people are legally bound together. As a sacrament, it is an act of worship, and expression of faith, a sign of the Churchs unity, a mode of Christs presence. . Fifth, the full consummation of marriage is more than a biological act. The old theology and the old canon law asserted that a marriage between two baptized Christians, once performed according to the rite of the Church (ratum) and once consummated by a single act of physical union (consummatum), can never be dissolved, not even by the pope. But according to the council, the expression of the mutual love which is at the heart of the sacrament consists of more than biological union. It involves the good of the whole person. Therefore it can enrich the expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions as special ingredients and signs of friendship distinctive of marriage. Such love pervades the whole of (the spouses) lives (n. 49) Finally, the broader ecclesial dimension of the sacrament is maintained. Christian spouses, in virtue of the sacrament of matrimony, signify and share in the mystery of that union and fruitful love which exists between Christ and the Church (see Ephesians 5:32) (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 11). (pp. 856-858) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate. (Gospel of Matthew 19:6) Matrimony, The Seven Sacraments, Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1445. Stages for catholic marriage Catholic marriage, also called matrimony, is an indissoluble bond between a man a

Synthetic and Natural Rubber Essay -- Comparison Material Rubber

Synthetic and Natural Rubber Abstract Rubber is an important resource with a wide variety of applications. It can be obtained naturally from the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. It can also be synthesized from petroleum and natural gas. Both natural and synthetic rubbers have their own advantages and disadvantages. Natural rubber is made up the linear chain polymer, cis-l,4-polyisoprene. Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is the most common synthetic rubber. It is a random copolymer of styrene and butadiene and has good physical properties once it has been strengthened through vulcanization. Introduction Rubber is an elastomer that can be obtained naturally from certain trees or synthesized from petroleum and natural gas. [1] It is a valuable resource that is commonly used in tires, machine belting, wire insulation, and shoe soles. Rubber is created naturally, most commonly by the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis .[1] There are many different types of synthetic rubber including: isoprene, butadiene, polysulfides, polychloroprene, nitrile rubber, and styrenebutadiene rubber. [3] There are advantages and disadvantages of both synthetic and natural rubber. Results Hevea trees are native to the Amazon region, but were brought to Asia, which is now the largest producer of natural rubber. [1] Natural rubber is obtained by a process called tapping. [2] A knife is used to make a shallow cut in the tree to allow latex to flow freely and be collected in a cup.[2] A single tapping yields about 50 grams of rubber and usually occurs once every two days. [2] Natural rubber can be produced at a rate of about 1 ton of rubber per acre per year. [2] Natural rubber is the linear chain polymer, cis-l,4-polyisoprene. The polymer is ... ...lant Products. 7 Jan. 1998. 29 July 2008 . [8] Rodgers, Brendan, Donald S. Tracey, and Walter H. Waddell. Biosynthesis of natural rubber. Digital image. EBSCOhost. Aug. 2005. 29 July 2008 4c49b0571e04%40sessionmgr7>. [9] Rodgers, Brendan, Donald S. Tracey, and Walter H. Waddell. Configuration of polyisoprene molecule. Digital image. EBSCOhost. Aug. 2005. 29 July 2008 4c49b0571e04%40sessionmgr7>. [10] Copolymer: random arrangement [Styrene-butadiene copolymer]. Digital image. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online. 29 July 2008 rubber-sbr#default>.

History of Optometry

The history of optometry can be traced back to the early studies on optics and image formation by the eye. The origins of optometric science (optics, as taught in a basic physics class) date back a few thousand years BC as evidence of the existence of lenses for decoration has been found. It is unknown when the first spectacles were made, but the British scientist and historian Sir Joseph Needham stated in his research that the ancient Chinese invented the earliest eyeglasses 1000 years ago and were also mentioned by the Venetian Marco Polo in his account of his travels in ancient China.Alternatively, research by David A. Goss in the United States, shows they may have originated independently in the late 13th century in Italy as stated in a manuscript from 1305 where a monk from Pisa named Rivalto stated â€Å"It is not yet 20 years since there was discovered the art of making eyeglasses†. Spectacles were manufactured in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands by 1300. Benito Daza de Valdes published the third book on optometry in 1623, where he mentioned the use and fitting of eyeglasses.In 1692, William Molyneux wrote a book on optics and lenses where he stated his ideas on myopia and problems related to close-up vision. The scientists Claudius Ptolemy and Johannes Kepler also contributed to the creation of optometry. Kepler discovered how the retina in the eye creates vision. From 1773 until around 1829, Thomas Young discovered the disability of astigmatism and it was George Biddell Airy who designed glasses to correct that problem that included spherocylindrical lens.Although the term optometry appeared in the 1759 book A Treatise on the Eye: The Manner and Phenomena of Vision by Scottish physician William Porterfield, it was not until the early twentieth century in the United States and Australia that it began to be used to describe the profession. By the late twentieth century however, marking the distinction with dispensing opticians, it had become th e internationally accepted term.

Capital Structure Question Solution

FINE 3100 Problems for Midterm – Additional Capital Structure Problems Question 1 Belgarion Enterprises Asset beta, the riskiness of the firm, can be found as the weighted average of the betas of its debt and equity, where the weights are fraction of the firm financed by debt and equity: ? A = D/V ? D + E/V ? E = . 5 ? 0 + . 5 ? 1. 4 = . 7 To find the beta of the firm with no debt, find ? o or ? u using the formula for levered equity: ? E,L = ? o + [? o – ? D] D/E ( 1 – TC) Rearrange to find ? o = ? E,L + ? D D/E ( 1 – TC) 1 + D/E ( 1 – TC) Since the debt beta is zero, the equation simplifies to: ?o = ? E,L = 1. 4 / ( 1 + (. 5/. 5) ? (1 – . 4) ) = . 875 1 + D/E ( 1 – TC) The asset beta is higher if the firm has NO DEBT, in the otherwise perfect financial markets world. The firm with debt has an asset that the firm no debt does not: the interest tax shield. The riskiness of the tax shield is lower than the riskiness of the firm’s operating assets (its business risk). In fact, in this case, the interest tax shield is riskless because the debt is riskless. The beta of the levered firm’s assets is lower than beta of the unlevered firm’s assets. Remember, bankruptcy is costless in this problem. If bankruptcy is not costless, the result may not hold – by increasing leverage, the probability of bankruptcy goes up and therefore the expected costs of bankruptcy increase. In this case, the firm’s riskiness may well increase with leverage). Question 2 Little Industries a) Current market values EL = 300,000 ? $3 = $900,000 Value per bond: (. 05 ? 1000)/. 1 = 50/. 1 = $500 Total bonds: D= (. 05? 100,000)/. 1 = $50,000 VL = D + EL = 50,000 + 900,000 = $950,000 b) Current required rates of return Debt: rD = 10 % (given) Equity: rE,L = (EBIT – I) ? (1 – TC) = (270,000 – 5,000) ? (1 – . 4) = . 1766666 = 17. % EL 900,000 WACC = (D/VL) ? rD ? (1-TC) + (EL/VL) ? rE. L = (50,000/950,000) ? .1 ? (1-. 4) + 900,000/950,000 ? .177 = . 1708 c) For case of perpetual debt: VL = Vu + Tc D Therefore: Vu = VL – Tc D = 950,000 – . 4 ? 50,000 = 950,000 – 20,000 = 930,000 NOTE: another way to solve for the unlevered firm value is to first calculate the unlevered cost of equity and then use it to discount the unlevered firm’s cash flows 1. Unlevered cost of equity Recall: rE. L = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) Rearrange the formula for r0: 0 = [rE,L + rD D/E (1 – Tc) ]/ [1 + D/E (1 – Tc)] = (. 177 + . 1? 50,000/900,000 ?. 6)/(1+50,000/900,000?. 6) = . 1741935 VU = EU = EBIT ? (1- TC)/r0   = 270,000 ? .6/. 1741935 = 930,000 d) (i) After restructuring, the firm will be 30% debt financed. Let D* be the total debt after refinancing and VL* be the total firm value after refinancing. It must be true that: D* = . 3 ? VL* Since VL = Vu + Tc D, then VL* = Vu + Tc D* Substituting for D* VL* = Vu + Tc . 3 ? VL* Solve for VL* (1 – . 3? TC) VL*  = Vu VL*  = Vu/ (1 – . 3? TC) = 930,000/ ( 1 – . 3 ?. 4) = 1,056,818. 2 And D* = . 3 ? VL*  = . 3 ? 1,056,818. 2 = 317,045. 5 EL* = . ? VL*  = . 7 ? 1,056,818. 2 = 739,772. 7 (ii) By issuing new debt and retiring equivalent value of equity, total firm value increases VOLD  = 950,000 VNEW = 1,056,818. 2 Increase in firm value = 1,056,818. 2 – 950,000 = 106,818. 2 Since the required rate of return to debt is unchanged, we can assume that all of the benefit of the restructuring is captured by the shareholders. On the announcement of the proposed restructuring, the total value of equity will increase by the increase in firm value: Value of existing equity on the announcement = 900,000 + 106,818. 2 = 1,006,818. 2 New share price = 1,006,818. 2/300,000 = $3. 356 To figure out the number of shares repurchased, first figure out the dollar value of the new debt issued: New debt issued = New total debt – previous total debt = 317,045. 5 – 50,000 = 267,045 Shares worth $267,045 are repurchased, at $3. 356 per share Total shares repurchased = $267,045/$3. 356 per share = 79,572 shares Share remaining = 300,000 – 79,572 = 220,427 (iii) New required return to equity Method 1: rE. L = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) = . 17419 + (. 17419 – . 1) ? (317,045. 5/739,772. 7) ? .6 = . 193 Method 2: Interest on total debt, I = . 1 ? 317,045. 5 = 31,704. 5 rE,L = (EBIT – I) ? (1 – TC) = (270,000 – 31,704. 5) ? 1 – . 4) = . 193 EL 739,772. 7 New WACC = . 3 ? .1 ?. 6 + . 7?. 193 = . 1531 e) (i) Because the model assumes bankruptcy costs are zero, it does not consider the potential downside of increasing leverage. With bankruptcy costs, the expected costs of bankruptcy increase with leverage, offs etting the benefit of reduced taxes. (ii) Given D* = 317,045. 5 and Interest = 31,704. 5 EL = (EBIT – I) ? (1 – TC) = (270,000 – 31,704. 5) ? (1 – . 4) = 571,909. 1 EL . 25 Total firm value: V = D* + EL = 317,045. + 571,909. 1 = 888,955 Now, taking into account the impact of the bankruptcy costs, on the announcement of the increased leverage, the firm value FALLS: Change in firm value = 950,000 – 888,955 = -61,045 New equity value on the announcement = 900,000 – 61,045 = 838,955 New share price on the announcement = 838,955/300,000 = $2. 80 Share price falls from $3 to $2. 80!!! Therefore, the restructuring is a bad idea if the new required rate of return to equity rises to 25%. Question 3 Mighty Machinery Initial situation: market value of debt = . 08? 50m/. 08 = 50 m market value of equity = 8 m ? 20/sh = 160 m market value of firm = 210 After Restructuring: Assume that all change in value is borne by the shareholders. So the loss of the tax shield will impact shareholders only. Value of lost tax shield = Tax rate ? change in debt = . 35 (-10m) = – 3. 5m New firm value = old value + value of tax shield = 210 – 3. 5 = 206. 5 m New debt value = old debt + change in debt = 50m – 10 m = 40m New equity value (at the actual restructuring date) = new firm value – new debt value = 206. 5 – 40 = 166. 5 m New share price: Given that shareholders bear all of the impact of the reduced tax shield, given efficient financial markets, the value of the equity will fall by 3. m ON THE ANNOUNCEMENT of the plan. Thus, at the announcement, total equity is worth 160 – 3. 5 = 156. 5m or $19. 5625 per share ($156. 5m/8m = 19. 5625). Another way: the NPV of the restructuring is -3. 5m, which is all borne by shareholders. The change in share price will be -3. 5m/8m = -$0. 4375, giving a new share pric e of $20 – . 4375 or $19. 5625. ii) Shares issued = $10m/$19. 5625 or 511,182 Check: final share value/new number of shares = 166. 5/8. 511182 = $19. 5625. (iii) Use the formula: rE = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) Rearrange the formula for r0: r0 = [rE + rD D/E (1 – Tc) ]/ [1 + D/E (1 – Tc)] = [. 5 + . 08 ? 50/160 ? (1-. 35)]/[1+50/160 ? (1-. 35)] = . 138181818†¦. Then New rE = r0 + (r0 – rD) (new D/new E) (1 – Tc) = . 138 + (. 138-. 08) (40/166. 5) (1-. 35) = . 1429 The restructuring causes rE to fall, as expected. The leverage is lower, the risk of equity is lower, shareholders’ required rate of return falls. b) You answer this question! Question 4 NOTE: This was a particularly tricky question. Part marks were given for wrong answers. Assume that it is valid to use the CAPM†¦this is ok, given the perfect financial markets assumption. Need to get all of the components of WACC: rD = current yield-to-maturity, 9% Market value of D = (. 08 ? 2. 5m )/. 09 = 2. 22222m TC = 35% What about value of equity and cost of equity Use a competitor to figure out†¦the closest company to GLC is All Lawn Chemicals. The most complete way to go is to figure out the unlevered cost of equity of All Lawn (reflecting the business risk), and value GLC at this rate. This will give us the unlevered value of GLC. Next, use GLC’s current capital structure to get GLC’s levered value of the firm and its equity. Next calculate the cost of equity, given GLC’s current capital structure†¦. 1. Find unlevered cost of capital for All Lawn Use the same rearrangement of the cost of equity formula in question 6: rE = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) Rearrange the formula for r0: r0 = [rE + rD D/E (1 – Tc) ]/ [1 + D/E (1 – Tc)] Use CAPM to find current rE of All Lawn: rE = rf + ? ? MRP = . 075 + 1. 2 ? .07 = . 159 r0 = [. 159 + . 09 ?. 3? (1-. 35)] / [1+. 3? (1-. 35)] = . 14774 Value of firm for GLC  : V L = OCF ? (1 – tc) + tcD RU V = 1. 5M * (0. 65) + 2. 222M*(0. 35) .1477 VL = 7. 37892M Value of Equity for GLC: VL = Ve + VD = 7. 37892M = 2. 222M + Ve Ve = 7. 37892 – 2. 222 = 5. 1569M Ve = 5. 1569M = y R equity = (OCF – Interest expense)(1 – tax rate)/ Value of equity = { ($1. million – . 08x$2. 5 million) . 65}/5. 1569= . 163858 =16. 39%. OR 1. Find unlevered cost of capital for All Lawn Use the same rearrangement of the cost of equity formula in question 6: rE = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) Rearrange the formula for r0: r0 = [rE + rD D/E (1 †“ Tc) ]/ [1 + D/E (1 – Tc)] Use CAPM to find current rE of All Lawn: rE = rf + ? ? MRP = . 075 + 1. 2 ? .07 = . 159 r0 = [. 159 + . 09 ?. 3? (1-. 35)] / [1+. 3? (1-. 35)] = . 14774 2. Value of Unlevered GLC Vu = [OCF – Taxes] / r0 = [1. 5 ? (1-. 35)] /. 14774 =6. 59943 3. Value GLC with its current capital structure VL = Vu + Tc D = 6. 59943 + . 35 ? . 22222 = 7. 37721 4. Value GLC’s equity and its required rate of return Thus: EL = VL – D = 7. 37721 – 2. 22222 = 5. 15499 and rE = r0 + (r0 – rD) D/E (1 – Tc) = . 14774 + (. 14774 – . 09)? (2. 22222/5. 15499)?. 65 = . 1639 5. Calculate GLC’s WACC Wacc = (2. 22222/7. 37721)?. 09?. 65 + (5. 15499/7. 37721)?. 1639 = . 1322 Question 5 a) False. Although often increases in firm value increase equity value, it is not always the case. When debt is risky (that is, there is a chance that the debt will not be paid the full promised interest and principal), improvements in firm val ue may go partly or totally to debt holders. This means that the debt has become less risky: there is less chance that the bondholders won’t get the promised interest and principal repayments. An example: when a firm is in financial distress, a value-increasing investment may only increase the value of the debt – and none of the value goes to shareholders. See kit and also the Barclay, Smith, Watts article. b) False. All that is necessary for the risk of equity to increase is that the firm’s operating cash flow be variable. Whenever you add the fixed interest payments, the result is to intensify the variability of the cash flows to shareholders (they get paid only after the fixed payments have been made to the debtholders). Look at the kit, – risk of equity increased with the addition of debt – and there is no chance of bankruptcy in this example (debt is riskless – no matter what state of the world occurs, the debtholders get their promised payments). c) False. For this answer, assume perfect financial markets and keep the firm’s investment and borrowing constant. If you don’t make these assumptions, then we have to make other assumptions about the state of the financial markets. These ones make our story easy). It is true that a shareholder may have to sell shares at the bottom of the market to create homemade dividends. But if the firm increases its dividend, they too will have to sell shares at the bottom of the market!! If we assume that the firm is currently payi ng out the money they have, the rest is tied up in investment plans and no new borrowing is made, if the dividend is increased, THE FIRM WILL HAVE TO GO TO THE MARKET AND SELL SHARES to pay for the higher dividend. The risk of selling shares at the bottom of the market has not gone away and shareholders still get stuck with it – either they pay for it directly when they sell their shares or indirectly when the firm brings in new shareholders who pay less for their shares than if it had been the top of the market. So this is not a valid reason why the firm paying a dividend will increase firm value. d) Uncertain. What the answer depends on is whether the bond holders anticipated correctly the chances and costs of distress/bankruptcy. If bondholders correctly anticipate distress and the costs associated with it, they will pay less for the bonds than if the costly distress did not occur. Shareholders end up paying the costs – because the company gets less for the bonds sold – raising the cost of debt financing. Of course, if bondholders do not correctly anticipate the distress, then they share in the costs. e) THIS IS A POST MIDTERM QUESTION True. Cost savings are much more likely to be achievable than revenue increases – firms have control over their production process but not over their customers. f) False. This question is very much related to a). Shareholders will not be willing to contribute more money to positive NPV projects when the bulk of the benefit goes to bondholders. See the references in a). g) True. The messy formula for the impact on firm value of adding debt when both personal and corporate taxes are considered is outlined in the kit. This happens when (1-TB) < (1-Tc)(1-TS)†¦.. Translating: 1-TB is the after-all-taxes cash flow of a $1 of bond income, (1-Tc)(1-TS) is the after-all-taxes cash flow of $1 of equity income (because first corporate taxes are paid and then personal taxes on equity income are paid). If investors get less in their pocket, after all taxes, when $1 of bond income is paid then after a $1 of equity income, they won’t want the firm to borrow – pay only dividend income and less total taxes (corporate plus personal) are paid. Firm value will be lower if the company borrows!!! h) True. This follows from the â€Å"free cash flow problem† discussed in Barclay, Smith and Watts. A company with lots of cash but few investment opportunities (low growth) puts management into temptation: spend the money on projects they like but aren’t necessarily positive NPV. For such a firm, a high dividend payout (high dividends/net income) and high interest and principal obligations keeps the cash out of the hands of manager and gives them fewer opportunities to make negative NPV investments, increasing the value of the firm. i) True. Given these assumptions, adding debt creates a new asset: a tax shield. The tax shield is a â€Å"gift† from the government, increasing the firm’s after-tax cash flows. This tax shield is lower risk than the assets of the business – it depends on the riskiness of the firm’s debt (and we assume that the tax rate doesn’t change). Thus total risk of the levered firm is lower than if it is unlevered (the levered firm has the same business risk plus the lower risk tax shield – the overall risk is lower). j) THIS IS A POST MIDTERM QUESTIONS False. All valuation methods requiring assumptions to be made. Earnings capitalization is a simpler valuation method than discounted cash flow– but it is loaded with strong assumptions about the future cash flows/earnings such as constant growth, constant dividend payout and unchanging capital structure. ) True the firm will have received the cash without having to issue new shares, however, the firm will also have missed out on raising equity when these warrants are not exercised and the warrant holders (and other potential investors) are disappointed and may not invest in this firm in subsequent rounds of equity financing if they were not able to benefit from their warrant purchase. Warrants are not like call options. With call options the firm in not involved in the transaction. With warrants the firm’s reputation and ability to raise financing is affected.